This annotated chronology is based on the data sources that follow each entry. Public sources often provide conflicting information on classified military programs. In some cases we are unable to resolve these discrepancies, in others we have deliberately refrained from doing so to highlight the potential influence of false or misleading information as it appeared over time. In many cases, we are unable to independently verify claims. Hence in reviewing this chronology, readers should take into account the credibility of the sources employed here.

Inclusion in this chronology does not necessarily indicate that a particular development is of direct or indirect proliferation significance. Some entries provide international or domestic context for technological development and national policymaking. Moreover, some entries may refer to developments with positive consequences for nonproliferation.

4 April 1990
Arshad Z. Pervez is convicted in the US District Court for the Eastern District of Pennsylvania of violating the Export Administration Act of 1979. Pervez is charged with attempting to export maraging steel to Pakistan, in apparent violation of US export laws. Pervez along with a retired Pakistani General Inam Ul-Haq were indicted in 1987 on the same charges.
—"Action Affecting Export Privileges; Arshad Z. Pervez; Order Denying Permission To Apply for or Use Export Licenses," Federal Register, 20 April 1993; in Lexis-Nexis Academic Universe, 20 April 1993, <http://web.lexis-nexis.com>.

August 1990
US officials inform British authorities about Pakistan's attempts to buy high-temperature furnaces from German and British manufacturers. Pakistan is also apparently trying to buy these furnaces from an US company. These high-temperature furnaces can be used to make nuclear weapons.
—Stuart Auerbach, "Pakistan Tried to Buy Nuclear Aids; Attempts to Purchase Furnaces Detailed," Washington Post, 10 October 1990; in Lexis-Nexis Academic Universe, 10 October 1990, <http://web.lexis-nexis.com>.

9 October 1990
Documents provided to US administration officials and congressional investigators detail Pakistan's attempts to acquire US-made high-temperature furnaces. The furnaces can be used to make nuclear materials to build a bomb or to make metals to produce missiles capable of delivering nuclear weapons. The furnaces sought by Pakistan are manufactured by Consarc Corp. of Rancocas, New Jersey. The documents reveal Pakistan's repeated attempts to acquire these furnaces. On 2 February 1990, Pakistan's Embassy in France contacted Consarc's British subsidiary to buy arc melting furnaces that cost $3 million per piece. However, the company informed S. Muhtar Ahmed in Pakistan's Embassy in Paris that it could not get an export license to ship the furnaces. At about the same time in February, Central Diagnostics Inc., a Toronto-based consulting firm with Pakistani links, approached Al Ferrari, a Consarc salesperson, about supplying the furnaces for making high-quality steel suitable for surgical equipment. An official at Central Diagnostics Inc., however, denies his firm's links with Pakistan's nuclear program and says that the order was not carried out since the equipment was too costly for Pakistan's surgical industry. Pakistan continued its efforts to buy the furnaces when its Directorate of Technical Procurement approached Consarc's British branch to buy six furnaces. The request was rejected, citing British export control laws. Following the rejections, Pakistan tried to procure the furnaces through the Swiss firm Fernhandels. The company made two requests to Consarc to acquire high-temperature furnaces. It made the first request four days after Consarc turned down the request from Pakistan's Embassy in Paris. The requirements provided by the Swiss firm exactly match the Pakistan Embassy's request. Fernhandels placed another request three weeks after the first request, mentioning the same specifications made by Pakistan's Directorate of Technical Procurement. Both requests were subsequently denied.
—Stuart Auerbach, "Pakistan Tried to Buy Nuclear Aids; Attempts to Purchase Furnaces Detailed," Washington Post, 10 October 1990; in Lexis-Nexis Academic Universe, 10 October 1990. <http://web.lexis-nexis.com>.

Early 1991
A secret US Defense Intelligence Agency (DIA) study on China's policy of selling high-technology missiles and other arms to the developing world concludes that China's public statements of limiting its arms sales should not to be believed. A Bush administration official familiar with the contents of the report says the report indicates that China will sell missiles to "whoever can pay for them." US administration officials say the recent deal between China and Pakistan on M-9 and M-11 ballistic missiles violates the 1988 Chinese pledge made to the then-Secretary of Defense Frank Carlucci not to sell militarily significant technology to the developing world. US officials also indicate that a shipment of Chinese M-11 missiles will be delivered to Pakistan later this year. Chinese M-9 missiles (375-mile range) were delivered to Pakistan earlier this year.
—Bill Gertz, "China can't say no to arms buyers," Washington Times, 28 May 1991, Part A, p. A1; in Lexis-Nexis Academic Universe, 28 May 1991, <http://web.lexis-nexis.com>.

12 March 1991
US Assistant Secretary of State Richard Solomon, concluding his two-day visit to China, states that China has agreed to honor Missile Technology Control Regime (MTCR) parameters. He also says China has to be a player in a "multilateral mechanisms" to control proliferation of arms.
—James L. Tyson, "China Will Ignore US Pressure to Stop Selling Its Missiles," Christian Science Monitor, 29 Match 1991, p. 6; in Lexis-Nexis Academic Universe, 29 March 1991, <http://web.lexis-nexis.com>.

27 March 1991
Chinese Foreign Minister Qian Qichen indicates that China should not be expected to follow Missile Technology Control Regime (MTCR) obligations since it did not sign the agreement. Rejecting MTCR's applicability to China, Qian states "As for China's arms exports, in this China has always been acting in a very prudent and responsible way." Qian further calls upon the largest weapons exporters to "adopt responsible and effective measures of self-restraint."
—James L. Tyson, "China Will Ignore US Pressure to Stop Selling Its Missiles," Christian Science Monitor, 29 Match 1991, p. 6; in Lexis-Nexis Academic Universe, 29 March 1991, <http://web.lexis-nexis.com>.

6 April 1991
US intelligence agencies spot a number of launchers for the Chinese M-11 ballistic missiles in Pakistan. According to US officials, the presence of the launchers points in the direction of a possible missile deal between Beijing and Islamabad, despite China's pledge not to transfer missile technology to Pakistan. Pakistan also considers displaying the missile launchers during a military parade, but drops the idea in the face of US complaints.
—R. Jeffrey Smith, "Chinese Missile Launchers Sighted in Pakistan," Washington Post, 6 April 1991, First Section, p. A17; in Lexis-Nexis Academic Universe, 24 May 1988, <http://web.lexis-nexis.com>.

6 April 1991
A group of US legislators write a classified letter urging the Bush administration to impose trade sanctions on China under the Missile Technology Control Regime (MTCR) specifications.
—R. Jeffrey Smith, "Chinese Missile Launchers Sighted in Pakistan," Washington Post, 6 April 1991, First Section, p. A17; in Lexis-Nexis Academic Universe, 24 May 1988, <http://web.lexis-nexis.com>.

8 April 1991
US officials say that the United States is trying to stop the sale of any new Chinese missiles to Pakistan. Two new missiles, the M-9 and M-11, are in the research and development phase. The M-9 has a range of 600 kilometers, while the M-11 has a range of 300 kilometers. Both the missiles are capable of carrying nuclear and conventional warheads.
—"US trying to block China missile sales," Journal of Commerce, 8 April 1991; in Lexis-Nexis Academic Universe, 24 May 1988, <http://web.lexis-nexis.com>.

25 April 1991
Chinese Foreign Ministry spokesperson Wu Jianmin terms the alleged report that China provided short-range missiles to Pakistan "groundless." Mr. Jianmin also states, "China does not advocate or encourage nuclear proliferation or help other countries develop nuclear weapons."
—David R. Schweisberg, "China denies arms charges, hits US on retaliation," United Press International, 25 April 1991; in Lexis-Nexis Academic Universe, 25 April 1991, <http://web.lexis-nexis.com>.

1 May 1991
US President Bush bars the sale of US components for a Chinese domestic communications satellite. The move arises from concerns of Chinese proliferation of weapons of mass destruction to third world countries like Algeria and Pakistan. The president, however, allows the export of components for two other projects, Aussat and Freja, to launch satellites from China.
—Clyde H. Farnsworth, "Bush Denies Satellite Parts to China," New York Times, 1 May 1991, Section A, p. 15; in Lexis-Nexis Academic Universe, 1 May 1991, <http://web.lexis-nexis.com>; "China Rebuffed," Aviation Week and Space Technology, 6 May 1991, Vol 134, No. 18, p. 17; in Lexis-Nexis Academic Universe, 6 May 1991, <http://web.lexis-nexis.com>.

Second Week of May, 1991
US Undersecretary of State Robert Kimmitt arrives in Beijing to hold talks with Chinese leaders on China's human right's record, trade issues, and arms trade with third world countries. Chinese officials inform Mr. Kimmitt that China has sold a ballistic missile with a range of less than 200 kilometers to Pakistan. The range is below the limits set by the Missile Technology Control Regime (MTCR) regulations and China is not a member of the MTCR agreement.
—"Senior US diplomat arrives in Beijing," Agence France Presse, 5 May 1991; in Lexis-Nexis Academic Universe, 12 May 1991, <http://web.lexis-nexis.com>; Don Oberdorfer, Ann Devroy, "Bush seeks to keep China Trade Status; Intense Debate on Benefits Expected," Washington Post, 16 May 1991, First Section, p. A1; in Lexis-Nexis Academic Universe, 16 May 1991, <http://web.lexis-nexis.com>.

28 May 1991
The White House announces the imposition of three new sanctions on China. The sanctions include denial of licenses to companies for selling 20 high-speed computers to China. The deal is worth $30 million and the computers can be used for missile testing; denial of licenses to US companies wishing to participate in seven proposed satellite launches by China. Licenses will be denied as long as China does not abide by international regulations to curb proliferation of nuclear and missile technology; banning US companies from selling missile technology or equipment to the state-run Chinese Precision Machinery Import-Export Corporation. The move arises directly from the sale of missile technology and equipment by the corporation to Pakistan.
—Andrew Rosenthal, "Bush Renewing Trade Privileges For China, but Adds Missile Curbs," New York Times, 28 May 1991, Section A, p. 1, Column 4, Foreign Desk; in Lexis-Nexis Academic Universe, 28 May 1991, <http://web.lexis-nexis.com>.

Summer 1991
A retired Pakistani General Inam Ul-Haq is arrested in Germany on charges of conspiring to obtain nuclear weapons-grade metal and export it to Pakistan. The General was indicted in 1987 on charges of violating US export laws.
—Legal Intelligencer (Philadelphia), 9 July 1992; in Lexis-Nexis Academic Universe, 2 September 1992, <http://web.lexis-nexis.com>.

10 June 1991
Experts express concern that China may begin exporting two new kinds of ballistic missiles to other countries, including Syria and Pakistan. They cite paucity of funds as a major factor in China's bid to claim its share of the world market in missile sales.
—Nicholas D. Kristoff, "China said to plan Arms Sales; US is Concerned," New York Times, 10 June 1991, Section A, p. 1; Column 6; Foreign Desk; in Lexis-Nexis Academic Universe, 10 June 1991, <http://web.lexis-nexis.com>.

11 June 1991
The Bush administration says that it intends to press Beijing to adhere to the Missile Technology Control Regime (MTCR) guidelines. According to US officials, the objective of the current effort is to stop the sale of Chinese missiles to Syria and Pakistan. US intelligence agencies note that the increase in the number of flight-tests for the M-9 and M-11 suggest that both missile systems are nearing completion of their development phase and might be sold to Syria and Pakistan.
—R. Jeffrey Smith, "US to Press China to Halt Missile Sales; Deals with Syria and Pakistan Opposed," Washington Post, 11 June 1991, First Section, p. A14; in Lexis-Nexis Academic Universe, 11 June 1991, <http://web.lexis-nexis.com>.

13 June 1991
US Secretary of State James A. Baker III warns China of "potentially profound consequences" if it concludes missile deals with Syria and Pakistan. A Pakistani official in Islamabad expresses hope that Pakistan will acquire M-11 missiles from China, despite US warning. The official mentions that talks are proceeding at various levels and says "We don't know if we are going to get them, (but) we hope we will get them."
—David Hoffman, "Selling Missile Technology would risk US wrath, Baker tells China," Washington Post, 13 June 1991, First Section, p. A36; in Lexis-Nexis Academic Universe, 13 June 1991, <http://web.lexis-nexis.com>.; "China voices support for Middle East arms reduction," Agence France Presse, 13 June 1991; in Lexis-Nexis Academic Universe, 13 June 1991, <http://web.lexis-nexis.com>.

16 June 1991
US Undersecretary of State Reginald Bartholomew arrives in Beijing to hold talks with Chinese officials on Chinese missile sales to Middle Eastern and third world countries. The White House announces the implementation of previously announced sanctions on China. Sanctions are also implemented on two Chinese companies, the China Precision Machinery Import-Export Corporation and China Great Wall Industry Corporation, which reportedly supplied Pakistan with missile technology.
—"State Department Official Arrives in China for Talks on Arms Sales," Associated Press, 16 June 1991, International News; in Lexis-Nexis Academic Universe, 16 June 1991, <http://web.lexis-nexis.com>.

20 June 1991
Chinese Foreign Ministry spokesperson Wu Jianmin confirms the sale of missiles to Pakistan but classifies the missiles to be "short-range tactical missiles with the range of about 200 kilometers." Stating that the missile range did not violate Missile Technology Control Regime (MTCR) stipulations, the spokesperson says there are different interpretations regarding missile ranges and hopes that a common understanding of the MTCR restrictions will be reached.
—David R. Schweisberg, "China acknowledges missile sale, claims short-range," United Press International, 20 June 1991; in Lexis-Nexis Academic Universe, 20 June 1991, <http://web.lexis-nexis.com>.

25 June 1991
US Secretary of State James Baker officially determines that the China Great Wall Industry Corporation and China Precision Machinery Import-Export Corporation have conducted missile technology sales requiring the imposition of US sanctions.
—"The Credibility of China's Nonproliferation Pledges and United States Sanctions: 1984-1996," compiled by the minority staff, Senate Governmental Affairs Committee, Summer 1996.

27 June 1991
China's Ambassador to the United States Zhu Qizhen states that China supplied a small number of short-range missiles to Pakistan that do not threaten any country.
—"National Press Club Morning Newsmaker People's Republic of China's Ambassador to the US Zhu Qizhen," Federal News Service, 27 June 1991; in Lexis-Nexis Academic Universe, 27 June 1991, <http://web.lexis-nexis.com>.

17 July 1991
The United States imposes sanctions on two Chinese firms and a Pakistani entity for activities related to missile proliferation. The sanctioned entities are China Great Wall Industry Corporation; China Precision Machinery Import-Export Corporation; and Space and Upper Atmosphere Research Commission (SUPARCO, Pakistan).
—"Imposition of Missile Proliferation Sanctions Against Chinese and Pakistani Entities," Federal Register, 17 July 1991; in Lexis-Nexis Academic Universe, 17 July 1991, <http://web.lexis-nexis.com>.

21 October 1991
Addressing a group of industrialists in Karachi, eminent Pakistani scientist Dr. Abdul Qadir Khan, proclaims Pakistan to be a nuclear power. He, however, insists that Pakistan possesses nuclear technology but has not produced a nuclear bomb.
—'Scientist admits Pakistan is 'a nuclear power'," United Press International, 22 October 1991; in Lexis-Nexis Academic Universe, 22 October 1991, <http://web.lexis-nexis.com>.

18 November 1991
US Secretary of State James Baker concludes his three-day visit to China and says that China has made verbal commitments to "observe the guidelines and parameters" of the Missile Technology Control Regime (MTCR), as well as not to export M-9 and M-11 missiles to Syria and Pakistan. China agrees to observe MTCR guidelines if the United States lifts the sanctions imposed on two Chinese companies. The sanctions were imposed on 16 June and banned the sale of high-speed computers to China.
—Thomas L. Friedman, "Baker's China Trip Fails To Produce Pledge on Rights," New York Times, 18 November 1991, Section A, p. 1, Column 6, Foreign Desk; in Lexis-Nexis Academic Universe, 18 November 1991, <http://web.lexis-nexis.com>.

20 November 1991
US officials investigating the international arms trading network of Carlos Cardoen, one of Chile's major arms makers, are attempting to verify if retired Pakistani General Talat Masood received $250,000 from Mr. Guerin to conceal his schemes in the late 1980s. Mr. Guerin, a former major US arms dealer, is believed to have ties with Mr. Cardoen. Mr. Guerin is believed to have used one of Mr. Cardoen's plants in a scheme to book more than $450 million is a phony missile deal with Pakistan. Law enforcement officials believe Mr. Guerin used a Pakistani General to vouch for his phony contract and suspect that General to be Gen. Masood. Gen. Masood is named in the indictment of Mr. Guerin but has not been charged.
—Andy Pasztor, "Investigators Say Chilean Dealer Smuggled US Weapons to Iraq," Wall Street Journal, 20 November 1991; in Lexis-Nexis Academic Universe, 20 November 1991, <http://web.lexis-nexis.com>.

5 December 1991
Chinese Foreign Minister and State Councilor Qian Qichen states that China supports Pakistan's initiative to hold a five-nation consultation on nuclear non-proliferation in South Asia. Mr. Qichen makes the statement to visiting Pakistani envoy and Secretary General of the Foreign Ministry, Mr. Akram Zaki. The proposed countries to be included in the consultations are: the United States, the Soviet Union, China, India, and Pakistan.
—"Chinese Foreign Minister meets special envoy of Pakistan Premier," Xinhua General Overseas News Service, 5 December 1991; in Lexis-Nexis Academic Universe, 5 December 1991, <http://web.lexis-nexis.com>.

9 December 1991
China's Ministry of Aerospace Industry and Pakistan's Space and Upper Atmosphere Research Commission (SUPARCO) sign an agreement on cooperation in the peaceful use of aero-space sciences and technology.
—"China, Pakistan to cooperate in peaceful applications of space technology," Xinhua General Overseas News Service, 10 December 1991; in Lexis-Nexis Academic Universe, 9 December 1991, <http://web.lexis-nexis.com>.

10 December 1991
A Chinese government spokesperson says that an agreement on peaceful application of space sciences and technology signed between relevant departments in China and Pakistan specifies cooperation in areas such as satellite technology and satellite launching service.
—"China, Pakistan to cooperate in peaceful applications of space technology," Xinhua General Overseas News Service, 10 December 1991; in Lexis-Nexis Academic Universe, 10 December 1991, <http://web.lexis-nexis.com>.

	Updated November 2003