From the early 1920s through the early 1990s, the Soviet Union developed, produced, stockpiled and deployed chemical weapons. As a result of its chemical warfare (CW) program, the Soviet Union had the world's largest arsenal of chemical weapons, including artillery shells, bombs, and missiles that contained choking agents (phosgene), nerve agents (Sarin, soman, and VX), and blister agents (mustard, lewisite, and mustard-lewisite mixture). There also have been allegations that the Soviet Union developed a new class of nerve agent (Novichok), estimated to be 5-10 times more toxic than VX.
The CW program involved the army, industry and health system, thus encompassing a massive secret military-chemical complex of 35-40 facilities. Within the Ministry of Defense (MOD), the Administration of the Chief of Chemical Forces (UNKhV), which had its own research and testing facilities, was responsible for CW affairs. The leading research facilities were the Military Academy of Chemical Protection (VAKhZ) of the Red Army in Moscow, the Central Scientific Research Military Technology Institute, and the Central Military-Chemical Proving Grounds at Shikhany, on the banks of Volga River. The Red Army also tested experimental chemical weapons near the Caspian Sea, Lake Baikal, Florishchi (near Nizhniy Novgord), Gelendizhik, and Luga (Leningrad oblast).
As to industry, the Soyuzorgsintez All-Union Association included chemical weapons plants and research facilities; it also directed production of chemical weapons through the late 1980s and weapons development until 1 January 1993. The key institute of the chemical industry in developing chemical weapons was the State Union Scientific Research Institute of Organic Chemistry and Technology (GSNIIOKhT).
The Ministry of Health (MOH) provided sanitation and health support to the CW program through the Institutes of Labor Hygiene and Occupational Illnesses in Moscow and Nizhniy Novgorod. The MOH was also involved in the development of new generations of chemical weapons at the Institutes of Labor Hygiene and Occupational Pathology in Leningrad (now St. Petersburg) and Volgograd.
The Ministry of Agriculture chiefly supported the development of herbicides for weapons use. The Moscow All-Union Scientific Research Institute of Chemical Means of Plant Protection (VNIIKhSZR), Herbicidal Institute in Ufa, and Experimental Plant in Shchelkovo developed formulas for killing crops possessed by a "likely enemy."
Chemical weapons were produced on the shores of deep rivers using the waters of the Volga, Oka and Kama rivers for production needs, as well as for the disposal of waste. The production plants were located in Moscow, Volsk (Saratov oblast), Chapayevsk (Samara oblast), Berezniki (Perm oblast), Novomoskovsk (Tula oblast), Volgograd, Dzerzhinsk (Nizhniy Novgorod oblast), Zavolzhsk (Ivanovo oblast), and Novocheboksarsk (Chuvashia).
In 1990-1992, before signing the Chemical Weapons Convention (CWC), the Soviet and then Russian Army presented for inspection and destruction 40,000 metric tons of chemical munitions and agents stored in bulk. Russia signed the CWC on January 13, 1993.
In November 1997, Russia ratified the CWC. Moscow took this step after having been assured of foreign assistance in meeting the expensive and technically difficult task of destroying its chemical weapons stockpile. By 2008, Russia had met its first and second CWC deadlines - eliminating 1% of 40,000 agent tons in 2003 and 20% in 2007. Russia is now working on meeting other deadlines: 45% by December 2009, and 100% by April 2012.
There are currently seven specialized arsenals in Russia where chemical weapons are stored in considerable numbers:
Russian Chemical Weapon Stockpiles
Location
CW Type (Agent)
Stockpile Volume %
Amount (tons)
Amount Destroyed (tons)
Destruction Schedules
Gornyy, Saratov Region
lewisite, mustard, mustard-lewisite mix (blister)
2.9
1,143
1,143
Start-up December 2002; completed December 2005
Kambarka, Udmurt Republic
lewisite in bulk (blister)
15.9
6,349
5,752**
Start-up March 2006; Completion late 2009
Maradikovsky, Kirov Region
sarin, soman, VX (nerve)
mustard-lewisite mix (blister)
17.4
6,890
4,394**
Start-up September 2006; Completion 2012
Pochep, Bryansk Region
sarin, soman, VX (nerve)
18.8
7,498
Start-up 2008: Completion 2012
Leonidovka, Penza Region
sarin, soman, VX (nerve)
17.2
6,885
Start-up 2008; completion 2012
Shchuchye, Kurgan Region
sarin, soman, VX (nerve)
13.6
5,457
Start-up 2008: completion 2012
Kizner, Udmurt Republic
sarin, soman, VX (nerve)
lewisite (blister)
14.2
5,745
Start-up 2009; Completion 2012
Totals
100%
39,967 tons
11,289 tons
*Table based upon Paul Walker and Janina de Guzman (Global Green USA), "SGP Issue Brief: Implementing Chemical Weapons Destruction In Russia," Annex 1, February 2006, Strengthening the Global Partnership Website.
** Figure for Kambarka is as of 2 July 2008; figure for Maradikovsky is as of 17 July 2008. At Maradikovsky, 1st stage: 4,394 tons reaction mass/hydrolysate extracted from 21,811 500kg bombs (=63 percent of total stockpile), 2nd stage (incineration): 525 tons of reaction mass hydrolysate incinerated, 4,259 shells treated in metal-parts furnace, 311 tons of different solid wastes burned. Figures for Kambarka and Maradikovsky were provided by Cristian Ion (Global Green USA) on 17 July 2008. International Initiatives and Support Programs
Understanding the challenge Russia faces to destroy such large CW stockpiles and convert former CW facilities, Western governments and international organizations launched several programs aimed at destroying chemical agents and weapons, preventing proliferation of Russian CW capabilities, involving former CW scientists in cooperative projects, and promoting greater transparency. These international activities include assistance and support with:
construction of chemical destruction facilities
destruction of chemical weapons stockpiles
collaborative research - to prevent former CW scientists from selling their expertise to terrorist groups or proliferant states and to use their knowledge for peaceful purposes on commercial grounds and for the mutual benefit of participants
physical protection - to prevent unauthorized access to CW storage facilities
Key Sources: [1] Lev Fedorov, Khimicheskoye oruzhiye v Rossii: istoirya, ekologiya, politika [Chemical Weapons in Russia: History, Ecology, Politics], Moscow, Center of Ecological Policy of Russia, 1994. [2] Roger Roffey, Wilhelm Unge, Jenny Clevstrom and Kristina Westerdahl, Support to Threat Reduction of the Russian Biological Weapons Legacy - Conversion, Biodefense and the Role of Biopreparat, Swedish Defense Research Agency, Umeå, April 2003. [3] Resolution of July 5, 2001, No. 510. Federal Target Program "Destruction of Chemical Weapons Stockpiles in the Russian Federation." The Russian Federation Government Decree No. 976, July 20, 2004.
