Inclusion in this chronology does not necessarily indicate that a particular development is of direct or indirect proliferation significance. Some entries provide international or domestic context for technological development and national policymaking. Moreover, some entries may refer to developments with positive consequences for nonproliferation.

February 2000
The U.S. Department of Energy issues a joint statement by delegates from Argentina, Brazil, Canada, France, Japan, South Africa, South Korea, the United Kingdom, and the United States, expressing agreement to pursue Generation IV nuclear power systems as a possible future energy alternative. Such advanced power systems are economically competitive and could be deployed in the next 20 years when electricity demand increases worldwide.
--"United States and Eight Countries Issue Joint Statement on Generation IV Nuclear Power Systems," FDCH Federal Department and Agency Documents, 10 February 2000, <http://www.lexis-nexis.com/universe>.

February 2000
A team from the United States travels to South Africa to evaluate its small-scale Pebble Bed Modular Reactors. The U.S. team, including the Nuclear Regulatory Commission, the Department of Energy, the State Department, and the Idaho Nuclear Engineering and Environmental Laboratory meet the design team of Eskom (Electricity Supply Commission), an unregulated affiliate of South Africa's state-owned utility. In a subsequent letter dated 31 March, U.S. Energy Secretary Bill Richardson states: "the team believes that the project is viable and can be successful. The design has the potential to provide a new energy production alternative for the US." Eksom continues to seek international investors for its PBMR.
-- "US Backing for Pebble Bed," Nuclear Engineering International, August 31, 2000; Rebecca Smith, "US Backing for Nuclear-Power Project in South Africa Raises Hope and Dissent," Wall Street Journal, 15 June 2000.

April 2000
National electricity supplier Eskom receives Cabinet approval to proceed with its detailed feasibility study for the pebble bed modular reactor (PBMR), an experimental nuclear reactor. The approval allows Eskom to perform an environmental impact assessment (EIA) for the construction planned for Koeberg in the Western Cape. The next stage of the project, the construction of a demonstration plant and nuclear commissioning, will require another Cabinet authorization. The PBMR utilizes helium coolant, a graphite moderator and ceramic fuel pellets. The process reportedly allows for operation at very high temperatures, increasing the amount of energy for conversion into electricity, and produces less nuclear waste than the current reactors at Koeberg. By exporting the miniature nuclear plants, Eskom predicts it could earn over 18 billion Rand/year.
-- "Eskom Gets Go Ahead for Pebble Bed Nuke EIA," Financial Times Information, South African Press Association, 12 April 2000, <http://www.lexis-nexis.com/universe>; "Environment-South Africa: No to Nuclear Technology," Business and Industry Interpress Service, 18 April 2000, <http://www.lexis-nexis.com/universe>.

April 2000
South Africa and six other countries (Mexico, Brazil, Egypt, Ireland, New Zealand, and Sweden) form a coalition at the 2000 Review Conference of the Parties to the Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons (NPT). Their joint declaration, "Towards a Nuclear Weapon Free World: The Need for a New Agenda" aims to refocus on the NPT agenda, emphasizing the total elimination of nuclear arsenals.
-- "Mexico and Six Other Countries Launch Declaration on Nuclear Weapon Free World," Xinhua News Agency, 24 April 2000, <http://www.lexis-nexis.com/universe>.

May 2000
A recently deciphered transcript from the flight recorder of the South African Airways Boeing 747 called "the Helderberg," which crashed into the sea off Mauritius in 1987, raises new suspicions that a nuclear bomb was aboard the plane. The crash killed all 159 on board and remains South Africa's greatest aviation mystery. The plane was en route from Taipei to Johannesburg during the time that the apartheid government was developing its nuclear capabilities and engaging in arms trade with Taiwan. Although a three-year judicial inquiry found that no one was to blame for the crash, the new evidence has prompted some to consider reopening the inquiry.
-- "Fresh Evidence that Helderberg Carried Nuclear Material," Financial Times Information, 23 May 2000, <http://www.lexis-nexis.com/universe>.

May 2000
The South African Nuclear Energy Corporation (NECSA) admits that its Pelindaba facility inadvertently discharged higher than allowed amounts of radioactive liquid material into the Crocodile River in the second quarter of 1999. The National Nuclear Regulator (NNR), which monitors South Africa's nuclear industry, found no negative impact on the environment from the radioactive discharge, but gave NECSA 24 hours to demonstrate that it had implemented all necessary measures to remedy the situation.
-- "Nuclear Waste Pumped into S. Africa River Exceeds Legal Limit," Agence France Presse, 30 May 2000, <http://www.lexis-nexis.com/universe>.

June 2000
British Nuclear Fuels (BNFL) signs an agreement to invest in Eskom's Pebble Bed Modular Reactors in South Africa, acquiring a 20% equity stake in the enterprise. BNFL also agrees to finance the building of the reactor's prototype, with a view to exporting the design to other countries. The plan is attacked by Earthlife Africa as well as local environmental groups.
-- "British Nuclear Fuels to finance mini-reactor in South Africa," Deutsche Presse-Agentur 13 June 2000; "US Backing for Pebble Bed," Nuclear Engineering International, 31 August 2000.

July 2000
South Africa's unique compact Pebble Bed Modular Reactor attracts purchasing interest from the United States, Britain, China, Japan, France, Egypt, Indonesia, Morocco, and Tunisia because the unique reactor is "safer, cheaper and cleaner" than conventional nuclear power systems. Public Enterprises Minister Jeff Radebe said that not one of these countries has as yet signed export contracts, as the gravel bed reactor is still in the developmental phase. He added that the new system will only be sold to countries who have signed the nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty.
--"Foreign interest shown in buying 'unique' nuclear reactor," British Broadcasting Corporation - BBC Summary of World Broadcasts, July 08, 2000; James Lamont, "South Africa to expand its nuclear capacity; International Atomic Energy Agency Conference Minister of Minerals and Energy Says Country Aims to Develop Mini," Financial Times, 14 November 2001.

September 2000
The South African and Indian defense ministers sign a cooperation agreement on defense, military research and procurement, saying it could facilitate arms trade between them.
--" S.Africa, India sign defence cooperation agreement," Agence France Presse - English, 27 September 2000.

October 2000
Eskom secures a second international partner for its Pebble Bed Modular Reactor Project: Peco Energy, a United States utility. In June 2000, British Nuclear Fuels took a 20% stake in the project.
-- "News Digest: South Africa, Peco Energy," Power Engineering International, October 2000, <http://www.lexis-nexis.com/universe>.

January 2001
The South African government agrees to allow two British cargo ships carrying reprocessed nuclear waste to sail past South Africa's Cape of Good Hope to Japan. The government also agreed to allow the British nuclear ships to take in fuel at the Cape without a nuclear license, contrary to Pretoria's laws which require one. The ships left Europe on 19 January and are expected to arrive in Japan in late March. The ships, the Pacific Pintail and Pacific Teal, are carrying MOX fuel, a mixture of plutonium and spent uranium in amounts large enough to build 20 atomic bombs, according to Greenpeace. However, the French nuclear group Cogema SA, which produces MOX fuel, insists the material is not weapons-grade.
--Nuclear fuel cargos to sail by South Africa to Japan," Agence France Presse - English, January 20, 2001; "SOUTH AFRICA GRANTS BRITISH NUCLEAR SHIP PASSAGE," Panafrican News Agency (PANA) Daily Newswire, 22 January 2001.

March 2001
A sectoral task team of South Africa's Minerals and Energy Department considers proposals for restructuring and privatizing parts of the South Africa Nuclear Energy Corporation (NECSA, formerly the Atomic Energy Corporation). While the Pelindaba Nuclear Institute and the Safari-1 reactor would likely remain state-owned, the commercial activities would be privatized. The restructuring would allow the corporation to become a more internationally focused supplier of technologically advanced products and services.
-- "Nuclear Restructuring Planned," Nuclear Engineering International, 31 March 2001, <http://www.lexis-nexis.com>.

April 2001
International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) Director-General Mohammad ElBaradei arrives in South Africa for talks on cooperation and nuclear nonproliferation. His visit will include meetings with South African senior government officials, touring nuclear research facilities at Pelindaba, and visiting the nuclear power reactor at Koeberg. South Africa receives more than one million dollars per year from the IAEA's technical cooperation program.
-- "International Atomic Energy Chief Arrives in South Africa," Agence France Presse, 9 April 2001, <http://www.lexis-nexis.com>.

July 2001
Members of the IAEA's International Nuclear Safety Advisory Group (INSAG) recommend a full review of the safety features of the Pebble Bed Modular Reactor (PBMR). They expressed concern that the safety evaluation would be rushed due to the current enthusiasm for the reactor and that some safety issues would be considered resolved based on assumptions from earlier experience with pebble bed high-temperature gas-cooled reactors. Safety issues cited include the vertical axis turbine, which has previously never been used in a nuclear plant, and the quality of the reactor's spherical graphite-clad fuel.
-- "IAEA Cautions on PBMR Safety," Nuclear Engineering International, 31 July 2001, <http://www.lexis-nexis.com>.

August 2001
Eskom's feasibility study for building the 110 MWe pebble bed modular reactor (PBMR) near Koeberg suggests that other sites be considered, since fuel must be transported by road from Pelindaba.
-- "Cape Town May Lose PBMR," Nuclear Engineering International, 31 August 2001, <http://www.lexis-nexis.com>.

August 2001
The U.S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission (NRC) refuses to approve containers made by the Nuclear Energy Corporation of South Africa for transporting hazardous material. The NRC would not validate South Africa's approval of the containers for use in the United States because the application, the South African license, and the design and test data upon which South African approval was based were full of inconsistencies. The containers' heavily shielded seven-ton units are designed for carrying cobalt-60 pencils. Observers consider the rejection a major embarrassment and potential threat to South Africa's efforts to sell revolutionary technology to the world.
-- "Setback for Nuclear Industry," AllAfrica, Inc., 10 August 2001, <http://www.lexis-nexis.com>.

November 2001
A regional public information seminar to promote public understanding of nuclear energy applications is held in Cape Town. The seminar, titled "Peaceful Uses of Nuclear Energy in the 21^st Century" is hosted by the Department of Minerals and Energy (DME) in conjunction with the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA).
-- "Government to Host Nuclear Seminar," AllAfrica, Inc., 12 November 2001, <http://www.lexis-nexis.com>.

November 2001
South Africa commits itself to expansion of its nuclear capacity at a conference hosted by the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA). Phumzile Mlambo-Ngcuka, the South African minister of minerals and energy, said the country was striving to expand its role in nuclear technology by developing mini nuclear reactors. Eskom, the state-owned electricity utility, is developing 110 megawatt (MW) pebble bed modular nuclear reactors in partnership with British Nuclear Fuels and Exelon, the U.S. electricity utility. The government believes the reactors have considerable export potential, particularly to the United States, and could earn the country more than R18billion ($1.9 billion) a year.

A concurrent Financial Times article by James Lamont suggests that nuclear expansion should be critiqued in light of possible nuclear terrorism after the attacks on the United States on September 11. Lamont states: "Although [South Africa] has dismantled its weapons-making programme, South African scientists and military procurement agents were feared to be passing on technology to other states, including Iran. The country was most recently linked to the possible sale of nuclear material by the court testimony of Jamal Al Fadl, an aide to Osama bin Laden, the terrorist suspect. Mr Al Fadl said he was involved in an attempt to buy $1.5 billion of uranium, which he believed had originated in South Africa." According to the article, South African Minister of Minerals and Energy Mlambo-Ngcuka explains: "One of the greatest injustices that has befallen this sector is its development during the era in which security and secrecy were the order of the day. It stigmatized a technology whose discovery had not been intended as a tool for ideological bargaining."
--James Lamont, "South Africa to expand its nuclear capacity; International Atomic Energy Agency Conference Minister of Minerals and Energy Says Country Aims to Develop Mini," Financial Times, 14 November 2001.

December 2001
The decision to pursue construction of the pebble bed modular reactor (PBMR) demonstration plant in South Africa has been delayed for up to 12 months, pending resolution of issues concerning the turbine design and the graphite core internals. Based on the results of a feasibility study, however, the consortium (South Africa's Eskom and International Development Corporation, the UK's BNFL, and the US's Exelon) reaffirmed its support for the project.
-- "Pebble Bed Demo Delayed," Modern Power System, 31 December 2001, <http://www.lexis-nexis.com>.

December 2001
After a feasibility study on the pebble bed modular reactor (PBMR) shows the technology is broadly viable, Exelon, one of the biggest power groups in the United States, negotiates to buy 40 mini nuclear reactors from South Africa. The total order could be worth as much as US$6 billion.
-- "US Firm Negotiating to Buy "40 mini nuclear reactors" from South Africa," BBC Monitoring Africa, 5 December 2001, <http://www.lexis-nexis.com>.

December 2001
South Africa's Nuclear Energy Corporation (NECSA) hosts nuclear experts from Sweden and The Netherlands for meetings to share expertise and experience in the safe and efficient running of the world's three leading nuclear research reactors: South Africa's Fundamental Atomic Research Installation (SAFARI-1), Sweden's R2 Reactor at Studsvik, and the High Flux Reactor (HFR) at Petten in The Netherlands.
-- "Nuclear Experts Meet," AllAfrica, Inc., 5 December 2001, <http://www.lexis-nexis.com>.

December 2001
During his first visit to China as president of South Africa, Thabo Mbeki announces that the Chinese and South African governments are close to finalizing a cooperation agreement on the peaceful use of atomic energy. Mbeki stated that Chinese experts already work at South Africa's Pebble Bed Modular Reactor (PBMR). After severing diplomatic ties with Taiwan in 1998, China and South Africa normalized relations and bilateral ties continue to solidify.
-- "China, South Africa to Cooperate in Nuclear Energy," Agence France Presse, 11 December 2001, <http://www.lexis-nexis.com>.

January 2002
A U.S. engineering firm and two South African companies have agreed to build South Africa's second nuclear plant, a trial plant utilizing the pebble bed modular reactor (PBMR) technology. Shaw Group, Inc. and South African nuclear technology company PBMR Pty. Ltd. and engineering firm Murray and Roberts are still doing feasibility studies, but specified that Koeberg (near Cape Town) would be their "preferred site." Anti-nuclear activists protest the technology development in South Africa and question whether the location is due to the unproven technology which does not meet required standards in the United States.
--"S. African, U.S. Firms in Deal on Nuclear Power Plant," Agence France Presse, 15 January 2002, <http://www.lexis-nexis.com>.

March 2002
The City of Cape Town considers legally challenging the environmental impact assessment (EIA) currently being carried out on the pebble bed nuclear reactor (PBMR) proposed for Koeberg, located just north of Cape Town. Cape Town says the EIA has failed to assure the city that concerns will be addressed, has not allowed for adequate time to fully review key documents, and has not provided technical, feasibility, and energy planning studies to the city. The project appears to be proceeding without delay, although EIA authorization and a nuclear license have not yet been granted.
--"Council Concern over Nuclear Reactor," Financial Times Information, South African Press Association (SAPA), 14 March 2002, <http://www.lexis-nexis.com>.

April 2002
U.S. electricity company Exelon Corporation, parent company of Peco Energy Company, announces that it will end its cooperation with Eskom, South Africa's state-owned utility company, to develop the next generation of nuclear reactors. Although Exelon does not rule out using the technology in the future, its withdrawal casts doubt on the technology's future. The remaining partners, Eskom, British Nuclear Fuels, Ltd. and South Africa's Industrial Development Corporation, state that the project will continue despite Exelon's departure.
--"Nuclear Operator Exelon Won't Work on New Type of Reactors," Knight Ridder / Tribune News Service, 17 April 2002, <http://www.lexis-nexis.com>.

June 2002
At the end of June, South Africa's Department of Minerals and Energy, in partnership with the International Atomic Energy Agency, will host an intergovernmental seminar on the nonproliferation of nuclear weapons. The goal of the seminar is to encourage African countries to honor their commitment to the nonproliferation of nuclear weapons, as embodied in the Pelindaba Treaty, which strives for an African continent free of nuclear weapons. Approximately 80 government representatives from at least 33 African nations are expected at the seminar, which will be held in Benoni.
--"Nuclear Seminar to be Held Near Johannesburg," Financial Times Information, South African Press Association, 19 June 2002, <http://www.lexis-nexis.com>.

July 2002
Two Japanese companies, Nuclear Fuel Industries, Ltd. and Mitsubishi Heavy Industries, Ltd., will participate in the construction of the pebble bed modular reactor (PBMR) in South Africa. Nuclear Fuel Industries, Ltd. will build a factory for the production of spheres of graphite containing coated uranium, the special fuel for the reactor. Mitsubishi Heavy Industries, Ltd. will develop helium-powered turbine generators.
--"Two Japanese Firms to Join in Building New Reactor in South Africa," Xinhua General News Service, 16 July 2002, <http://www.lexis-nexis.com>.

July 2002
During a visit to Russia, South African Foreign Minister Nkosazana Dlamini-Zuma meets with her Russian counterpart Igor Ivanov to discuss nuclear nonproliferation and the fight against international terrorism. Also on the agenda for discussion are exports of South African farm produce to Russia and Russian exports of technologies to South Africa.
--"Russia, S Africa to Boost Cooperation," ITAR-TASS News Agency, 19 July 2002, <http://www.lexis-nexis.com>.

August 2002
During a visit to Brazil for the inauguration of the South Africa-Brazil binational commission, South African Foreign Affairs Minister Nkosazana Dlamini-Zuma praises the relationship between South Africa and Brazil, which is to include cooperation in the electricity and nuclear industries.
--"Dlamini-Zuma Lauds Relationship with Brazil," Financial Times Information, South African Press Association, 7 August 2002, <http://www.lexis-nexis.com>.

August 2002
Western Cape Premier Marthinus van Schalkwyk expresses concern over a security breach at Koeberg nuclear power station. During a recent protest, Greenpeace activists approached the plant on inflatable boats and climbed over the wall of the nuclear plant and onto a roof where they unfurled a green banner reading "Nukes out of Africa" before they were arrested by police. Van Schalkwyk says the security breach should be addressed immediately. Eskom, however, denies that a security breach occurred and states that its security personnel monitored the approach of the protesters and took action when the boats entered the intake basin. Although satisfied with the plant's management, van Schalkwyk expressed serious concerns about the high-level nuclear wasted stored at Koeberg over the past 18 years.
--"Koeberg Vulnerable from the Sea: W Cape Premier," Financial Times Information, South African Press Association, 30 August 2002, <http://www.lexis-nexis.com>; "Eskom Denies Security Breach by Greenpeace," Financial Times Information, South African Press Association (SAPA), 24 August 2002, <http://www.lexis-nexis.com>.

September 2002
British Prime Minister Tony Blair, by revealing the contents of a government dossier, implicates Saddam Hussein in trying to buy African uranium to give Iraq's weapons program a nuclear capability. Blair's documents did not identify any country allegedly approached by Iraq, but security analysts said the Congo was the likeliest, followed by South Africa. Jakkie Cilliers, head of the Institute for Security Studies in Pretoria, is doubtful of Baghdad obtaining uranium from South Africa. "As a past nuclear power we are an obvious suspect but it is unlikely because the programme was dismantled under the observation of the International Atomic Energy Agency." According to a BBC investigation, a year before South Africa halted its nuclear weapons program, it traded enriched uranium with Saddam Hussein with U.S. approval. The BBC cited an anonymous South African intelligence official who said about 50kg of uranium was sold to the Iraqis.
--James Astill and Rory Carroll, "Iraq Dossier: African gangs offer route to uranium: Nuclear Suspicion falls on Congo and South Africa," The Guardian, 25 September 2002.

September 2002
South Africa and 18 other nations ratify the Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty (CTBT) at the United Nations General Assembly meeting in New York. The CTBT is to contribute to a systematic and progressive reduction of nuclear weapons and the prevention of nuclear proliferation.
--"Countries Commit to Nuclear Test Ban," AllAfrica, Inc., Africa News, 17 September 2002, <http://www.lexis-nexis.com>.

September 2002
South Africa signs a protocol with the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) to enhance their joint efforts to achieve global nuclear nonproliferation. The Additional Protocol requires South Africa to provide more information to the IAEA than what is already required by the existing Safeguards Agreement. Minerals and Energy Deputy Minister Susan Shabangu signed the protocol in Vienna, Austria, and it immediately entered into force. Mali and Chile also sign the Additional Protocol with the IAEA this month.
--"South Africa Signs Protocol Agreement with IAEA," Financial Times Information, Panafrican News Agency (PANA) Daily Newswire, 13 September 2002, <http://www.lexis-nexis.com>; "Pretoria, International Atomic Energy Agency Sign Protocol," Financial Times Information, Panafrican News Agency (PANA) Daily Newswire, 14 September 2002, <http://www.lexis-nexis.com>; "Strengthened Safeguards, Mali, Chile and South Africa," International Atomic Energy Agency Staff Report, 24 September 2002, <http://www.iaea.org>.

September 2002
Minerals and Energy Minister Phumzile Mlambo-Ngcuka states that South Africa is seeking to diversify its sources of energy, including using nuclear power, in order to generate a sustainable security of supply. South Africa's main source of energy is coal, which constitutes about 75% of energy generation, followed by oil and gas. Nuclear energy constitutes less than 5% of energy production.
--"South Africa to Diversify Sources of Energy," BBC Monitoring Africa, 26 September 2002, <http://www.lexis-nexis.com>.

September 2002
The World Nuclear Association considers the results of the feasibility study carried out on the Eskom PBMR in South Africa as positive. It says the study predicts power generation between $0.026/kWh and $0.034/kWh, as long as series production could be achieved to reduce installation costs to $1000/kW. If the project succeeds, the study predicts orders for 258 of the 140 MW units by the year 2027 and 1175 total orders in the long term.
--"Study Predicts Pebble-Bed Success Story," Modern Power System, 30 September 2002, <http://www.lexis-nexis.com>.

October2002
South Africa dismisses British and U.S. media reports alleging South Africa's involvement in helping Iraq develop its nuclear weapons program as "unfounded and unsubstantiated." Britain's The Spectator and the U.S. Insight on the News both claimed that South Africa was selling Iraq aluminum tubes to help Baghdad develop nuclear weapons. Foreign Affairs spokesman Ronnie Mamoepa said the allegations were not only factually incorrect but could even be libelous. Mamoepa added that South Africa had constantly engaged with the UN to find a peaceful resolution to the current crises in the Middle East and had since 1991 committed itself to a policy of nonproliferation, disarmament, and arms control that covers all weapons of mass destruction and conventional weapons. Abdul Minty, chairperson of the South African Council for the Non-Proliferation of Weapons of Mass Destruction, said it "has not approved any exports of controlled goods, including special aluminum tubes that can be used for uranium enrichment, to Iraq."
--"South Africa Denies Providing Iraq with Nuclear Material," Panafrican News Agency (PANA) Daily Newswire, 10 October 2002, <http://www.lexis-nexis.com>.

October 2002
Foreign Affairs Deputy Minister Aziz Pahad states that implementation of the Pelindaba Treaty is hindered by lack of capacity and the conflict in the Middle East. Although 50 out of 54 African nations have signed the Pelindaba Treaty, an African initiative to ensure that the continent is free of nuclear weapons, only 17 out of 28 nations required for the treaty's entry into force have ratified it. Many African countries have not ratified the treaty due to their limited expertise in the nuclear field and lack of capacity to pass it through their legislatures. In North Africa, Arab nations have established a link between the Pelindaba Treaty and the creation of a nuclear weapon-free zone in the Middle East and progress in the Middle East peace process.
--"Mid East Conflict Hampers Nuclear-Free Africa," AllAfrica, Inc., Africa News, 23 October 2002, <http://www.lexis-nexis.com>.

November 2002
During a session of the Russia-South Africa intergovernmental commission in Pretoria, Russian Vice Premier Valentina Matviyenko and South African Foreign Minister Nkosazana Dlamini-Zuma discuss new possibilities for economic and trade cooperation. The nuclear industry is one of several areas in which joint projects may be possible.
--"Russia, South Africa Intergovernmental Commission Starts Session in Pretoria," RIA Novosti, 18 November 2002, <http://www.lexis-nexis.com>.

November 2002
Western Cape Provincial Premier Marthinus van Schalkwyk visits France as part of a week-long trade, tourism, and investment drive. His visit includes meetings with top management of Electricite de France (EDF) to learn about France's experience in producing safe nuclear energy. According to van Schalkwyk, Koeberg nuclear power station supplies almost 60% of the province's energy requirements and the visit to EDF demonstrated the government's "commitment to ensuring the highest international safety measures are in place."
--"W. Cape Leader in France to 'Learn' About Producing 'Safe' Nuclear Energy," Financial Times Information, 27 November 2002, <http://www.lexis-nexis.com>.

December 2002
South Africa's Pebble Bed Modular Reactor (PBMR) project announces that it has started up a test rig of its power conversion system. The test model represents the first closed-cycle, multi-shaft gas turbine in the world and replicates the functional layout of the PBMR power plant. According to PBMR CEO David Nicholls, the model "will fairly accurately predict the behaviour of the power plant and addresses one of the main technical risks of the project, namely the integrated controllability of a multi-shaft system."
--"Breakthrough for PBMR," Nuclear Engineering International, 19 December 2002, <http://www.lexis-nexis.com>.

February 2003
At the World Economic Forum in Davos, Switzerland, Ruel Khoza, chairman of the state-owned South African utility company Eskom, states that South Africa is seriously considering building several nuclear power stations. According to Khoza, Electricite de France and British Nuclear Fuel are advising Eskom in this regard.
--"Eskom and Nuclear Power," Africa Energy Intelligence, 5 February 2003, <http://www.lexis-nexis.com>.

February 2003
A team of South African disarmament experts arrives in Iraq to begin talks with senior Iraqi officials on how Iraq can dispose of its weapons of mass destruction. The team, led by the South African Deputy Foreign Minister, consists of seven nonproliferation experts, most of whom helped disarm South Africa of weapons of mass destruction after the end of apartheid in 1994. According to Deon Smit, a South African scientist who assisted in his country's nuclear disarmament effort, the team will help Iraq prove it has disarmed itself by aiding Iraqi officials in documentation.
--"South African Disarmament Experts Arrive in Iraq," Global Security Newswire, 24 February 2003, <http://www.nti.org>

March 2003
China and South Africa sign a technical and scientific cooperation protocol agreement in 10 major projects, for which researchers and scientists carry out research, development, and information exchange towards mutual economic enhancement. China and South Africa will cooperate in such fields as peaceful use of nuclear energy, mini-satellite, remote sensing, mining, space, medicine, and health care, among others.
--"China, South Africa Sign Protocol on Scientific Cooperation," Global News Wire - Asia Africa Intelligence Wire, 13 March 2003, <http://www.lexis-nexis.com>.

April 2003
The City of Cape Town tells Eskom that it will not accept the toxic, high-level nuclear waste that would be produced by the pebble bed modular reactor (PBMR). Cape Town informed Eskom that it does not support the findings of the final environmental impact report for the modular reactor project and that Eskom must still formally apply for planning permission before any nuclear plant can be built. Cape Town has criticized the PBMR environmental impact assessment several times in the past; however, Eskom did not address the issues it raised.
--"Cape Town Rejects Nuclear Waste," Xinhua News Agency, 9 April 2003, <http://www.lexis-nexis.com>.

May 2003
The U.S. Congress is close to approving a $200 million package to build a test pebble bed modular reactor in Idaho, which offers great opportunity for South Africa and its electricity company Eskom. The proposed Energy Policy Act indicates that the United States wants hydrogen to replace oil as a future energy source. The PBMR has the potential to produce hydrogen in commercial amounts; however, several hurdles must be overcome before the U.S. demonstration project can proceed.
--"Plans to Build 'Revolutionary Mini-Nuclear Reactor' Receive U.S. Boost," Financial Times Information, BBC Monitoring, 16 May 2003, <http://www.lexis-nexis.com>.

June 2003
Following a three-year investigation into Eskom's application to construct a demonstration pebble bed modular reactor at Koeberg, the Environmental Affairs Department announces that it has approved the environmental impact assessment. The conditional approval includes the manufacture and transport of nuclear fuel between Pelindaba (west of Pretoria) and Koeberg. The approval does not mean that construction of the reactor can proceed. A separate licensing procedure dealing with nuclear safety issues is in process. Also, policy issues remain regarding the use of nuclear power and the storage of nuclear waste. Earthlife Africa, an environmental NGO, expresses shock and outrage at the decision and plans to continue its legal action against the PBMR construction at Koeberg.
--"Nuclear Reactor Environmentally Safe: DG," Financial Times Information, South African Press Association (SAPA), 26 June 2003, <http://www.lexis-nexis.com>; "Earthlife Africa Shocked about Reactor Approval," Financial Times Information, South African Press Association (SAPA), 27 June 2003, <http://www.lexis-nexis.com>.

July 2003
Ten South African engineers return to South Africa from France, where they attended a nuclear safety training course as part of an agreement between the South African government and Areva Group, a French high-tech industrial group and leader in the nuclear energy and connectors industry. The first training session marks the beginning of a project to train and educate South Africans in nuclear technology and mining and related high-technology industries. Two more groups, each of 10 South African engineers, will participate in additional training sessions later this year.
--"First SA Nuclear Safety Trainees Return from France," Financial Times Information, South African Press Association (SAPA), 6 July 2003, <http://www.lexis-nexis.com>.

July 2003
In response to safety and health issues brought to light by environmental NGO Earthlife Africa, South African nuclear engineers express their support for development of the Koeberg-based pebble bed nuclear reactor (PBMR) by saying it is "walk-away safe." A statement by the South African Institution of Nuclear Engineers indicates that accidents like those that occurred at Three Mile Island or Chernobyl are impossible with the PBMR. The statement emphasized the cost effectiveness of PBMR technology, disputed the dangers related to the transport of nuclear materials, and admitted that plans for the nuclear waste were still in development, but that it would not endanger future generations.
--"Engineers Support PBMR Nuclear Development," Financial Times Information, South African Press Association (SAPA), 25 July 2003, <http://www.lexis-nexis.com>.

August 2003
A U.S. cargo ship carrying 1,037 containers, including 50 tons of uranium ore, runs aground off the coast of Cape Town. The uranium ore is en route from South Africa to the United States for processing. Nuclear Fuel Corporation (Nufco) states that the uranium ore is packed in high integrity drums that would require a "fairly catastrophic" event to cause a spill.
--"Stranded Ship Aground Off Stormy Cape Coast with Uranium Onboard," Deutsche Presse-Agentur, 21 August 2003, <http://www.lexis-nexis.com>.

August 2003
The city of Cape Town backs objections to the proposed construction of the pebble bed modular reactor. It lodged an appeal of the Department of Environmental Affairs' acceptance of an environmental impact report. Among other issues, the objection arises from concerns about the handling of waste and the adequacy of disaster management plans.
--"Cape Town Objects to Nuclear Reactor Plan," Financial Times Information, South African Press Association (SAPA), 24 August 2003, <http://www.lexis-nexis.com>.

September 2003
Deputy Minerals and Energy Minister Susan Shabangu releases a draft radioactive waste management policy, which states that entities producing nuclear waste will have to bear the cost for the management thereof. It also states that waste management activities should be conducted in an open and transparent manner and shifts focus from disposal or reprocessing of the waste to safe management. The policy recommends the creation of a national executive committee on radioactive waste management, a radioactive waste management agency, a radioactive waste database, and a radioactive waste management fund, with contributions coming from the generators of nuclear waste.
--"Draft Nuclear Waste Policy: You Produce, You Pay," Financial Times Information, South African Press Association (SAPA), 3 September 2003, <http://www.lexis-nexis.com>.

September 2003
According to Minerals and Energy Minister Phumzile Mlambo-Ngcuka, the Nuclear Energy Corporation of South Africa (NECSA) sold 131 million rand worth of isotopes in 2002/2003 and exported 86 percent of these sales to 40 different countries.
--"Nuclear Energy Corp Sells Isotopes Worth R131-M," Financial Times Information, South African Press Association (SAPA), 10 September 2003, <http://www.lexis-nexis.com>.

September 2003
Earthlife Africa, an environmental NGO, lodges an application with the High Court in Cape Town, requesting it to review and set aside the environmental impact assessment (EIA) authorization granted to Eskom to build a demonstration pebble bed modular reactor at Koeberg. Earthlife Africa says that its participation in the EIA was limited because it was refused access to information on the economic and technical feasibility of the project. Due to this limitation, Earthlife Africa claims its constitutional right to be heard was violated when the approval for the reactor was granted in June. Whether the court case succeeds or not, it further delays the project.
--"Earthlife Africa Tackles South African Nuclear Giant," Financial Times Information, Panafrican News Agency (PANA), 16 September 2003, <http://www.lexis-nexis.com>; "Court Block to SA Nuclear Project," Financial Times Information, Global News Wire, 19 September 2003, <http://www.lexis-nexis.com>.

October 2003
Minerals and Energy Minister Phumzile Mlambo-Ngcuka signs a long-term exchange agreement with French nuclear company Areva. The agreement will provide training for South African nuclear scientists and engineers in exchange for credits in terms of the industrial participation program. South Africa seeks to ensure a succession plan for its "very mature and experienced scientists."
--"Mlambo-Ngcuka Signs Training Exchange Agreement," AllAfrica, Inc., Africa News, 2 October 2003, <http://www.lexis-nexis.com>.

October 2003
Documents on apartheid nuclear weapons are declassified. Although initially told that all weapons-program records were destroyed, the South African History Archives Project at Wits University applied for the release of information under the Promotion of Access to Information Act. The top secret memo released is from March 1975 and titled "The Jericho Weapon System." The memo indicates that South Africa was considering buying Israeli ballistic missiles tipped with nuclear warheads that could strike Lusaka, Lilongwe, Maputo, and other African capitals. Ultimately, South Africa never purchased the Jericho system.
--Michael Schmidt, "SA's Nuclear Truth Leaks Out," Times Media Limited, 12 October 2003, <http://www.lexis-nexis.com>.

October 2003
According to Westinghouse, a U.S.-based business unit of U.K.-based nuclear group British Nuclear Fuels (BNFL), South Africa's pebble bed modular reactor (PBMR) is set to become the first plant in the world to produce both electricity and commercial quantities of hydrogen. If the reactor is proven safe, Eskom, the main driver behind the PBMR project, is likely to enter the hydrogen-based U.S. energy market. Regis Matzie, Senior Vice President and Chief Technology Officer of Westinghouse, and two former executives of U.S. utility Exelon, visited South Africa earlier this month to solicit support for the project from the South African government and the PBMR investors. According to Matzie, U.S. President George Bush has pledged one billion dollars for research and development of the nuclear hydrogen program.
--"U.S. Company to Assist S Africa in 'Commercialization' of Nuclear Plant," Financial Times Information, BBC Monitoring, 27 October 2003, <http://www.lexis-nexis.com>.

November 2003
South Africa and Russia complete the third session of the South African/Russian Joint Inter-Governmental Committee on Trade and Economic Cooperation (ITEC). South African Foreign Minister Nkosazana Dlamini Zuma and Russian Deputy Prime Minister Vladimir Yakovlev conclude that there is "significant room for improvement" in bilateral trade between their two countries. The session resulted in a proposal to involve the private sector in leveraging trade and economic issues. In addition, the Joint Commission on Science and Technology agrees to assist their respective Space Councils in finalizing the agreement on cooperation in research and peaceful use of outer space and will develop plans to use Russian scientists in the National System of Innovation to develop capacity in areas where South Africa needs expertise, such as astronomy and mathematics. The Joint Sub-Committee on Minerals and Energy agrees to sign the agreement on the Peaceful Use of Nuclear Energy at the earliest convenient date and to facilitate the training and education in the Russian Federation of South African nuclear specialists.
--"South Africa, Russia to Enhance Trade, Investment," Financial Times Information, Panafrican News Agency (PANA), 13 November 2003, <http://www.lexis-nexis.com>.

2 January 2004
Former Israeli Army officer and assistant rabbi, Asher Karni, is arrested at Denver International Airport in the United States and charged with attempting to smuggle 66 triggered spark gaps to Pakistan through his South African company, Top-Cape Technology. The spark gaps, used for medical purposes in small quantities, can be used in large quantities to detonate nuclear weapons. Karni allegedly exported spark gaps from New Jersey through South Africa to Pakistani businessman Humayun Khan without licenses. Karni is charged with violating two laws: the Export Administration Act and the International Emergency Economic Powers Act. Court papers say Karni admitted sending the spark gaps, yet denied knowingly breaking any US laws or having ties to Abdul Qadeer Khan. His arrest was the result of a tip-off by a South African associate and a sting operation set up by the US Federal Bureau of Investigation. Karni may serve 10 years in prison if convicted.
—“US investigators in South Africa probe nuclear technology ring,” Agence France Presse, 12 February 2004, in Lexis-Nexis Academic Universe, <http://www.lexis-nexis.com>; NIS Export Control Observer, February 2004, <http://cns.miis.edu>.

February 2004
US investigators arrive in South Africa to probe a local link in an international black market in nuclear technology.
—"US investigators in South Africa probe nuclear technology ring,” Agence France Presse, 12 February 2004; in Lexis-Nexis Academic Universe, <http://www.lexis-nexis.com>.

18 February 2004
A South African government delegation, consisting of state power utility representatives and officials from the Departments of Trade, Industry, and Minerals and Energy, holds talks with a French company in Paris to induce its participation in the construction of the controversial Pebble Bed Modular Reactor (PBMR) project. Experts project the PBMR nuclear reactor will provide enormous future revenue as well as address South Africa’s rapidly expanding energy requirements.
—"South African team said in Paris for talks aimed at reviving nuclear project,” Business Day, Johannesburg, 18 February 2004, reported by BBC Monitoring Africa, 19 February 2004; in Lexis-Nexis Academic Universe, <http://www.lexis-nexis.com>.

28 May 2004
An IAEA report documents far reaching international involvement in Libya’s nuclear weapons program, spanning three continents. Although the report did not name the countries involved in supplying Libya, diplomats close to the agency said the report indicates that the former Soviet Union, South Africa, Pakistan, the United Arab Emirates, and Malaysia supported or served as bases for individuals selling nuclear components or expertise to Libya.
—"U.N.: Libya Nuke Suppliers Spanned Globe," Associated Press, 29 May 2004, <http://www.newsmax.com>.

22 June 2004
Minerals and Energy Minister Phumzile Mlambo-Ngcuka states that South Africa’s Cabinet has endorsed a five-to-ten year plan to develop the Pebble Bed Modular Reactor (PBMR) in order to grow a "critical research and skills base to support the PBMR program and a sustainable nuclear industry in South Africa."
—"SA Cannot Avoid use of Nuclear Energy," Comtex News Network, Inc., 22 June 2004; in Lexis-Nexis Academic Universe, <http://www.lexis-nexis.com>. 

23 June 2004
David Albright, president and founder of the Institute for Science and International Security, testifies before the Senate on the subject of smuggling of weapons of mass destruction. He describes the so-called "Khan" network, an international, relatively non-hierarchical, and clandestine nuclear network whose key technology holders and leaders were in Pakistan, including the father of Pakistan's gas centrifuge program, Abdul Qadeer Khan. Albright further testifies that many other network members were spread throughout the world, located in Europe, the United Arab Emirates, Turkey, South Africa, and Malaysia. They relied on unwitting manufacturing companies and international suppliers for the dissemination of nuclear materials and devices.
—Federal Document Clearing House Congressional Testimony, FDCHeMedia, Inc., 23 June 2004.

24 August 2004
Gerhard Wisser, chief of the South African-based engineering company Krisch Engineering, is arrested in Germany and accused of acting as a middleman in procuring pipes his company manufactures for a uranium enrichment facility in Libya. He is released on bail but rearrested in South Africa a month later.
—“South African Council for the Non-Proliferation of Weapons of Mass Destruction, Press Release,” 7 September 2004, Department of Foreign Affairs Republic of South Africa website, <http://www.dfa.gov.za>; "South Africa makes nuclear arrest in Libyan Proliferation," Financial Times Limited , 4 September 2004.

2 September 2004
Johan Andries Muller Meyer, engineer and head of the South African engineering company Tradefin (located in Vanderbijlpark, about 50 miles southeast of Johannesburg), is arrested for violating the Non-Proliferation of Weapons of Mass Destruction Act and the Nuclear Energy Act. South Africa’s National Prosecuting Authority arrests Meyer for his alleged activities with an international nuclear weapons-smuggling organization; he is accused of helping to supply equipment to Libya's now abandoned nuclear weapons program. Meyer, 53, was arrested at his Tradefin Engineering company in Vanderbijlpark and charged with violating South Africa's Non-Proliferation of Weapons of Mass Destruction Act and Nuclear Energy Act. Charges against him provide a detailed list of key nuclear weapons components that Meyer's Tradefin was alleged to be trafficking, including: gas centrifuges that enrich uranium for bombs; feed and piping systems that deliver the uranium inside the centrifuges; and a Spanish-made flow-forming lathe that produces the main centrifuge component -- high-precision steel rotor tubes where the enriching takes place. Police also seize 11 shipping containers holding components of a centrifuge uranium enrichment plant and related documentation during the raid at his company.
—“South African Council for the Non-Proliferation of Weapons of Mass Destruction, Press Release,” 7 September 2004, Department of Foreign Affairs Republic of South Africa website, <http://www.dfa.gov.za>; Dafna Linzer and Craig Timberg, “S. African’s Arrest Seen as Key to Nuclear Black Market,”  The Washington Post, 4 September 2004; in Lexis-Nexis Academic Universe, <http://www.lexis-nexis.com>.

8 September 2004
German engineer Gerhard Wisser and Swiss engineer Daniel Geiges, living permanently in South Africa, are arrested for participating in a nuclear technology smuggling ring.  Wisser is the owner, and Geiges a colleague and employee, of Krisch Engineering in Randpark, a Johannesburg suburb. Both are charged with contravening the Nuclear Energy Act and Non-Proliferation of Weapons of Mass Destruction Act by making and trafficking components for nuclear weapons without necessary authorization. Specifically, authorities charge Geiges and Wisser with illegally acquiring and exporting a flow-forming lathe manufactured by the Spanish-based company Denn and unlawfully acquiring and exporting a gas centrifuge and related equipment used in the enrichment of uranium.
— Tiziana Cauli, “Two More Arrested in South Africa in Investigation into Nuclear Arms Equipment Trafficking,” Associated Press, 9 September 2004; in Lexis-Nexis Academic Universe, <http://www.lexis-nexis.com>; Stephen Fidler and John Reed, “South Africa Makes Nuclear Arrest Libyan Proliferation,” Financial Times, 4 September 2004; in Lexis-Nexis Academic Universe, <http://www.lexis-nexis.com>; 'Nuclear' case opens in S Africa, BBC News, 16 September 2004, <http://newswww.bbc.net.uk>.

8 September 2004
Unexpectedly, authorities drop charges against Johan Meyer; he had been charged with violating the Non-Proliferation of Weapons of Mass Destruction Act and the Nuclear Energy Act. He is released but there is speculation that he has cooperated with South African authorities, who are investigating a nuclear weapon components smuggling ring.
—Tiziana Cauli, “Charges Dropped Against South African Accused of Trafficking in Nuclear Equipment,” 8 September 2004, Associated Press; in Lexis-Nexis Academic Universe, <http://www.lexis-nexis.com>.

8 September 2004
The Washington, DC-based think tank Institute for Science and International Security (ISIS) releases a report suggesting that nuclear smugglers used South Africa as a transit point for illicit trade in nuclear components due to perceptions that the country’s export control system is weak. Abdul Minty, chairman of the South African Council for the Non-Proliferation of Weapons of Mass Destruction, states that South Africa’s export regulations comply with international standards of nonproliferation as specified by the IAEA. Many experts express surprise at South Africa’s involvement. "This has exposed an incredibly important node of the Khan network, and it is surprising that it has happened in a country like South Africa, which is generally considered a white knight on nonproliferation," said David Albright, a former nuclear inspector and president of the Institute for Science and International Security.
—Jacob Blackford, “Asher Karni Case Shows Weakness in Nuclear Export Controls,” 8 September 2004, ISIS website, <http://www.isis-online.org>; Stephen Fidler and John Reed, “Nuclear Trade Smugglers Home in on Loopholes in South Africa,” Financial Times, 14 September 2004; in Lexis-Nexis Academic Universe, <http://www.lexis-nexis.com>; Dafna Linzer and Craig Timberg, “S. African's Arrest Seen as Key to Nuclear Black Market,” Washington Post, 4 September 2004.

15 September 2004
South Africa continues to work closely with the UN atomic agency to help it uncover international smuggling of nuclear weapons-related materials. Abdul Samad Minty, chairman of the South African Council for the Non-Proliferation of Weapons of Mass Destruction, affirms his commitment to cooperate with the IAEA "in every way." IAEA chief Mohamed ElBaradei states that investigations into cases of South African businessmen illegally trading in nuclear materials are helping shed light on nuclear programs in Iran and Libya.
—“South Africa Works with IAEA to Crack Down on Smuggling of Nuclear Materials,” AFX News, 15 September  2004; in Lexis-Nexis Academic Universe, <http://www.lexis-nexis.com>.

27 September 2004
A meeting between President Thabo Mbeki and Hassan Rouhani, Iran's secretary of national security, results in South Africa’s pronouncement that it will help Iran resolve questions about its nuclear program that have caused concern within the International Atomic Energy Agency. South Africa, as a member of the Board of Governors of the IAEA, will interact intensively with Iran to help reach a solution.
—South African Council for the Non-Proliferation of Weapons of Mass Destruction, Press Release, 30 September  2004, Department of Foreign Affairs Republic of South Africa website, <http://www.dfa.gov.za>.

13 November 2004
Swiss authorities arrest German engineer Gotthard Lerch, a senior employee of German vacuum technology maker Leybold Heraeus. Allegedly, Lerch helped procure uranium-enrichment technology for the Khan network in collaboration with Johan Meyer’s South African firm, Tradefin. Lerch has surfaced in a number of nuclear proliferation investigations in Europe since the 1980s, but has yet to be charged. Earlier this year, Iran and Malaysia identified him as a middleman in helping develop gas centrifuges for uranium enrichment in both Libya’s and Iran’s atomic weapons programs. Diplomats have long considered Lerch a “significant” player in the illicit nuclear trafficking network.
—David Rising, “German suspected of helping Libyan nuclear program arrested in Switzerland,” Associated Press, 16 November 2004, in Lexis-Nexis Academic Universe, <http://www.lexis-nexis.com>; Dafna Linzer and Craig Timberg, “S. African's Arrest Seen as Key to Nuclear Black Market,” Washington Post, 4 September 2004; “Scale of Pak Nuke Proliferation Still Unknown,” Agence France Presse, Reuters, Arab News, 13 February 2004, <www.aljazeerah.info>.

25 May 2005
On 25 May 2005, the chief director of nuclear matters at South Africa's minerals and energy department, Tseliso Maqubela, briefs parliamentarians on options for dealing with the country's high-level nuclear waste. The government's draft policy on nuclear waste management lists three options for the management of high-level nuclear waste: above-ground interim storage; deep geological disposal; and "reprocessing, conditioning and recycling". According to Maqubela, South Africa is likely to pursue a dual approach to its high-level waste, storing some locally as well as sending some overseas (to the United Kingdom, Japan, or France) for reprocessing.
He rules out the possibility of building a nuclear waste reprocessing facility in South Africa, saying this is often construed as "a recipe for other things". Currently, about 95 percent of South Africa's high-level nuclear waste comes from the Koeberg nuclear power station where it is stored on-site at the facility. The draft policy on nuclear waste, currently being revised, is set to go to the Cabinet in August 2005.
—"Department Sketches Sa's Nuclear Waste Options," Liquid Africa, 25 May 2005; in Lexis-Nexis Academic Universe, <http://www.lexis-nexis.com>.

July 2005
South Africa plans to convert its SAFARI-1 research reactor to use low-enriched uranium fuel instead of the highly enriched fuel currently used. "The switch marks a further milestone in the government's programme to ensure that the safety of nuclear materials is enhanced globally," according to the country's Department of Minerals and Energy Affairs. In a statement, the minerals and energy affairs department said the remaining HEU at Pelindaba "will generally be applied to the manufacturing of medical isotopes... used in nuclear medicine diagnostics." The conversion will take about three years to complete.
—"South Africa to Convert Nuclear Research Reactor," Agence France Presse, 18 July 2005; in Lexis-Nexis Academic Universe, <http://www.lexis-nexis.com>.

December 2006
South Africa plans to use fuel created from former Russian nuclear warheads to fuel a new line of small nuclear power plants. Since 1999, South Africa has been developing Pebble Bed Modular Reactors, relatively low-power units, and plans to build 24 of them by 2028. However, the decision to use foreign fuel might change as the nation's demand for fuel increases with the increase in power plants. South Africa has stated that “We are re-evaluating our nuclear program.”
—"South African Reactors to Use Uranium From Former Russian Nuclear Warheads," Global Security Newswire, 7 December 2006; <http://www.nti.org>.

	Updated May 2007